Commercial Contracts Under Nigerian Legislation

COMMERCIAL CONTRACTS UNDER NIGERIAN LEGISLATION Introduction A contract is an agreement which is legally binding on the parties to it and which if broken may be enforced by action in court against the party that has broken it. A contract may be void or voidable. A void contract is that which lacks the essential ingredients or elements of valid contract and therefore of no legal effect. A voidable contract is that which is valid in the first place but may be ended at the instance of one of the parties to it.Such contracts include guarantee with a bank of money lender, hire purchase and sale or leasing of land. The legal consequences of non-compliance are that they are not enforceable at law though they are not necessarily void. However, some categories of contracts must of necessity be in writing or else they shall be void absolutely. These include transfer of shares, marine insurance and hire purchase agreements. As a general rule also, all contracts are in the nature of agreement: h owever, not all agreements may constitute a contract properly so called.For instance, an agreement for the sale of a parcel of land is intended to be binding and enforceable at law, whereas, an invitation to a luncheon which after all, did not hold may not be enforceable at the suit of the disappointed party. A contract may also be under-seal or by deed and may be simple or oral. It may be express when it is written or implied when it is inferred from the conduct and acts of the parties. In addition, there can be bilateral contract between two parties or multi-lateral contract among parties depending on the nature of obligations to be performed under the agreement.Condition and warranty are the two basic types of express terms in a contract. Whether a term is a condition or warranty depends on the intention of the parties. A condition is a vital term which goes to the root of the contract. Breach of a condition entitles the innocent party to repudiate the contract and to claim damag es. A warranty is a term which is subsidiary to the main purpose of the contract, breach of which only entitles the innocent party to damages. FORMATION OF A VALID CONTRACT The main requirements of a valid contract are as follows: 1. there must be an offer; . there must be an acceptance; 3. there must be consideration; 4. parties must have full contractual capacity; 5. there must be an intention to create legal relations; 6. object of the contract must not be unlawful nor illegal; 7. prescribed formalities must be followed, for example, it should be in writing or by deed. Forms of Contract Contract supported by consideration are essentially expected to be in writing,. It is however important to note that a contract may also be oral or implied and yet be binding on the parties depending on the peculiar circumstances.The fact remains that a contract may not be taken as being invalid or unenforceable for the mere fact that it is not in a written form. Te court would normally not assist any person who was lured into an oral agreement. Writing merely facilitates the interpretation or proving of the terms of the contract barring which it may not be all that necessary. In considering commercial contracts under Nigerian legislation however, we would evaluate three of such contracts which are: ? hire purchase; ?sale of goods; ?agency. AGENCY CONTRACT IntroductionAgency is a relationship that exists between two persons, one of whom expressly or impliedly agrees that the other should represent him or act on his behalf. The one that is represented is called the principal while the person representing or acting on somebody’s behalf is called Agent. Agency relationship involves the consent of the agent and the principal that one should act for the other. It thus arises from a contract or agreements express or implied. Ofodile v. Chinwuba Generally, the relationship of principal and agent may arise in three main ways: 1.By agreement , whether contractual or not expres s or implied in nature 2. By subsequent ratification by the principal of the agent’s act done on his behalf, and 3. By operation of law under the doctrine of necessity Whether or not an agency relationship exists would largely depend on the true nature of the agreement and the circumstances of the relationship between the principal and the agent. In another vein, the law of agency consists of the law of the employer and the employed, where the employment consists of bringing the employer into contractual relationship with the third party.This relationship is simply referred to as â€Å"The Master and Servant† relationship under the labour law and for which there is a vicarious liability. An agent should be distinguished for an independent contractor. An independent contractor is the person who negotiates with the third party on his own behalf. An independent contactor is a person liable to give contract for service while and agent or servant renders contract of service . An independent contractor is personally liable at law for his actions. An agent is not a trustee of the goods in his care not being the legal owner.The extent or scope of the Agent’s discretion is determined by his principal’s instructions. Legal title always remains in the principal. An agent can therefore not give good title all by himself. CLASSIFICATION OF AGENCY a. Special Agent: This is someone who has authority to do some particular act on behalf of his principal though not a continuous basis; for instance, a special order to purchase a house or a vehicle. b. General Agent: this is someone who has power to act for his principal in all matters involving business or trade, for example a solicitor or legal practitioner. . A Factor Agent: He is an agent who sells or disposes of goods that are entrusted to him. His activities are governed by the Factors Act 1889 (UK d. Broker Agent: He negotiates ad makes contract for the sale and purchase of goods. However unlike a factor he is not left in possession of the goods. Typical example is insurance Brokers and Stock Brokers. e. Universal Agent: This is someone who represents various principals in many aspects of trade. He is appointed by a Deed under Power of Attorney and has wide powers. f.Mercantile Agent: He represents someone in commercial and certain aspects of trade. Their duties are more or less similar to those of the factor agent g. Auctioneer: He represents a principal in the disposal of real properties. They are usually licensed to sell properties of Mortgagors who have defaulted in payment. Auctioneer acts between the Vendor and the purchaser. He receives commission and invariably sells to the highest bidder. h. Estate Agent: These deal in the acquisition of, valuation of an disposal of properties i.Del-Credere Agent: This is a mercantile agent who, in consideration of extra pay, that is del-credere commission guarantees to his principal that the 3rd party with whom he enters into cont ract on behalf of the principal shall duly pay the sum becoming due under the contract. In effect a del credere agent is a surety of the person with whom he deals. This is just a form of guarantee which may not necessarily be in writing in order to be enforceable at law. CREATION OF AGENCY It may be created in two broad ways namely: (a)Expressly and (b) impliedly a. Express Creation: . By deed – this involves issuing an authority in writing with the necessary instruction and attestation clauses. That is signed, sealed and delivered. This process is known as the granting a Power of Attorney. 2. Oral instruction – This is agency by appointment, it deals with express authorisation of the principal to the agent to act for him b. Implied Creation 1. Agency of necessity – This is created by act of person who normally had no authority but was compelled to reasonable act to protect the interest of the 3rd party especially during an emergency situation. 2.Agency by Estop pel: – This is a type of agency that can be inferred form the conduct of the parties. If the situation that exists suggests that parties want to create an agency relationship, either of the parties is stopped form denying the existence of such a relationship. 3. Apparent Agency – This occurs where a principal has not taken due precaution to prevent a situation where somebody portrays himself as having power to act as his agent. 4. Agency by ratification – This occurs where the principal having full knowledge of the fact, accepts the benefits of the contract entered into by his apparent agent.Any act whether lawful or unlawful may be ratified provided it is not void. If it is voidable it is still capable of being ratified as long as it is valid. In Brook v. Nook where an agent forged his principal’s signature on a promissory note; it was held that the attempt at ratification was void. The principal must have capacity as at the date of the contract. In Keln er v. Baxter where a promoter tried to ratify some pre-incorporation contracts it was held that he could not succeed as the contracts predated the company.

Using the Rare Apostrophe in Spanish

Using the Rare Apostrophe in Spanish The apostrophe is almost never used in modern Spanish. Its use is limited to words of foreign origin (usually names) and, very rarely, poetry or poetic literature. Spanish students should not imitate the common uses of the apostrophe in English. Foreign Words Me siento vieja. Pero, cest la vie. I feel old. But such is life.Un jack-o-lantern es una calabaza tallada a mano, asociada a la festividad de Halloween. A jack-o-lantern is a pumpkin carved by hand and associated with Halloween festivities.Sinà ©ad Marie Bernadette OConnor es una cantante nacida en Dublà ­n, Irlanda. Sinà ©ad Marie Bernadette OConnor is a singer born in Dublin, Ireland.McDonalds ofrece una gran variedad de alimentos de alta calidad. McDonalds offers a big variety of high-quality foods. Note that in all the above cases the words would be recognized as being of foreign origin. In the first two cases, the use of the words with apostrophes would be seen as a Gallicism and Anglicism, respectively. Literature and Poetry The apostrophe can occasionally be found in centuries-old poetry or literature as a way of showing that letters have been omitted. Such use is very rarely found in modern writing, and then only for literary effect. Nuestras vidas son los rà ­os / que van a dar en la mar, / ques el morir. Our lives are the rivers / that flow to give to the sea, / which is death. (From Coplas de Don Jorge Manrique por la muerte de su padre, 1477.) ¿ ... quà © me ha de aprovechar ver la pintura / daquel que con las alas derretidas ...? ... what could it help me to see the painting of that one with the melted wings ...? (From the 12th sonnet of Garcilazo de la Vega, c. 1500-1536.) One exception in modern usage is the slang spellings of mijo and mija for mi hijo and mi hija (my son and my daughter, respectively). Such a spelling should not be used in formal writing. According to the Royal Spanish Academy, the apostrophe should not be used in the following instances, which are considered Anglicisms: To shorten years, such as using 04 for 2004. Simply 04 can be used instead.To make plurals. The Spanish word for apostrophe is apà ³strofo. An apà ³strofe is a certain type of insult.

Postal and Traditional State Abbreviations Reference Guide

Postal and Traditional State Abbreviations Reference Guide Wondering when to use abbreviations versus the full names when writing about states? As a general rule, the names of states should be spelled out when they appear in sentences  but abbreviated in other contexts. For example: Our family had been  transferred from Endicott, New York, to Raleigh, North Carolina. That was the word used by the people at IBM, transferred.  (David Sedaris, Naked, 1997)Both  men were raised in the Midwest   (Garfield in Ohio, Guiteau in Illinois) by a single, widowed parent.  (Sarah Vowell, Assassination Vacation, 2005) This rule applies also if you are writing something formal and following a style guide, such as the Chicago Manual of Style, MLA Style, American Psychological Association Publication Manual (APA), or Associated Press Style (AP).   When to Use State Abbreviations In bibliographies,  lists, charts where space is at a premium, reference lists, footnotes and endnotes, and in mailing addresses, state names are usually shortened  using the postal abbreviation. This applies to  Chicago Manual of Style  and the American psychological Association Style (APA). The two-letter, no-period state abbreviations recommended by the U.S. Postal Service (See Postal Abbreviations in the chart below.) should always be used where a Zone Improvement Plan (ZIP) code follows. These postal  abbreviations may also be used in any context where abbreviations are appropriate. Some writers and editors still prefer to use the older forms of state abbreviations. (See Traditional Abbreviations in the table below.) If you follow this practice, be consistent in your use of the traditional abbreviations, and remember that eight states (Alaska, Hawaii, Idaho, Iowa, Maine, Ohio, Texas, and Utah) are only rarely abbreviated when using the older (pre-ZIP code) forms. Why the ZIP Code Abbreviations Were Developed Before 1963, there were no ZIP  codes used on postal mail in the United States, and the U.S. Post Office preferred that people wrote out state and territory names  completely  to avoid confusion in sorting mail. In the early 1800s, it had established a standardized list of acceptable abbreviations, updating it in 1874. The list remained relatively unchanged until ZIP codes were introduced.   The addition of seven additional characters on a final address line (ZIP code plus two spaces) necessitated the shortening of state abbreviations to fewer characters. The Post Office aimed to fit the final address line into 23 characters to accommodate major addressing systems. U.S. or US for United States Finally, United States may be abbreviated to U.S. when used as an adjective, but in formal writing, its customarily spelled out as a noun. If you are following the Chicago Manual, youll remove the periods to become US except in bibliography or reference entries pertaining to U.S. statutes, court cases, and other legal-context usages, which retain the periods. If youre following APA or AP, you  will keep  the periods there too. MLA prefers to spell out United States as an adjective or a noun in running text. List of State Abbreviations This handy chart has both the postal and the traditional abbreviations, for your reference: STATE POSTAL ABBREVIATION TRADITIONAL ABBREVIATION Alabama AL Ala. Alaska AK Alaska Arizona AZ Ariz. Arkansas AR Ark. California CA Calif. Colorado CO Colo. Connecticut CT Conn. Delaware DE Del. District of Columbia DC D.C. Florida FL Fla. Georgia GA Ga. Hawaii HI Hawaii Idaho ID Idaho Illinois IL Ill. Indiana IN Ind. Iowa IA Iowa Kansas KS Kans. Kentucky KY Ky. Louisiana LA La. Maine ME Maine Maryland MD Md. Massachusetts MA Mass. Michigan MI Mich. Minnesota MN Minn. Mississippi MS Miss. Missouri MO Mo. Montana MT Mont. Nebraska NE Neb. or Nebr. Nevada NV Nev. New Hampshire NH N.H. New Jersey NJ N.J. New Mexico NM N.Mex. New York NY N.Y. North Carolina NC N.C. North Dakota ND N.Dak. Ohio OH Ohio Oklahoma OK Okla. Oregon OR Ore. or Oreg. Pennsylvania PA Pa. Rhode Island RI R.I. South Carolina SC S.C. South Dakota SD S.Dak. Tennessee TN Tenn. Texas TX Tex. or Texas Utah UT Utah Vermont VT Vt. Virginia VA Va. Washington WA Wash. West Virginia WV W.Va. Wisconsin WI Wis. or Wisc. Wyoming WY Wyo.

Does Economic Efficiency Require Greater Inequality Term Paper

Does Economic Efficiency Require Greater Inequality - Term Paper Example The variables require immediate and unified responses in order to prevent them from negatively affecting economic initiatives that have brought nations together in divergent regions and disciplines all over the world. Multiple complement factors that have facilitated division amongst nations have had a direct correlation on economic inefficiency in different regions around the world that may lead to a dramatic increase in this type of inefficiency in the future. Note the following: Many developing nations, for a host of reasons, may rapidly be falling out of favor with some of the world's leading multinationals. That's a worrisome prospect considering that FDI flows have been the largest source of external financing for the developing nations over the past half decade. According to the World Bank, FDI flows accounted for 60% of total private flows to the developing nations over the 1995-99 period; last year, the share was nearly 70%. So if our hunch is right, and multinationals are o n the verge of de-camping from a number of developing nations, many nations stand to lose a critical prop of external financing. This, in turn, could introduce a whole new and volatile dynamic to the global economy and to the world equity markets. Global Economic Forum, Global: The Bad News Bulls As you can see, any scenario that leads to a reconfiguration of global treaties and alliances has a highly probable chance of reducing economic efficiency on a region-specific and global level. Diplomatic relationships and strategic continuity between nations in regards to economic initiatives will play an integral part in how efficient these economic endeavors are in the future. Reconfiguration factors pose significant threats to economic efficiency across the global economic allies and treaty initiatives.     Ã‚  

Reagan and Gorbachev at Reykjavik, 1986 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Reagan and Gorbachev at Reykjavik, 1986 - Essay Example Hearing someone say something, even through an interpreter, hearing their tone, seeing their body language, is much better than any e-mail, phone call or letter. Friendships can be developed and communication levels would have been at their optimum. However, no definite agreement in writing was reached at this meeting. Was it therefore merely a non-event? The Reykjavik summit is chiefly remembered for what almost occurred there, what might have happened. Is it possible for something that didn't happen to be significant historically? If it is to be classed as a non-event does that mean that it is significantly different from an event that actually took place i.e. the signing of an actual bi-lateral agreement. Is the historical significance of a non-event inevitably different in character from the significance of an event that did actually occur? This essay will consider this question. Firstly the American administration considered Reyjavik to be only a preliminary meeting, taking thei r cue from Gorbachev’s letter perhaps1, a response to an earlier one from President Reagan. In it the Russian asks only for a very brief meeting where mutually agreeable solutions could be discussed based upon a political will on both sides to succeed in bringing the arms race between the two powers to a peaceful conclusion. It wasn’t expected to be that important. However it is clear from transcripts of their conversations that other topics such as human rights were on the table and perhaps these add to the significance? The list of topics to be covered provided by the American Secretary of State 2certainly saw a decision to have arms talks as being a possible outcome, rather than actual talks. So this was part of a process which would eventually lead to disarmament. This means that this was not a non-event , but the beginnings without which the rest of the process could not have continued. It laid foundations upon which both sides could built . Gorbachev was very ope n. As Document 93 makes clear he was willing to discuss whatever topics Reagan introduced, not just nuclear weapons and possible future disarmament. Also despite the final failure to come to a definite agreement Gorbachev was able to return home and say ‘You see, Reagan is a man we can work with.’ 4 Despite this it seems from Document 6 5that the Soviet reason’s for calling the meeting had been completely misunderstood in Washington. They give a number of possible reasons, but seem to have no way of knowing which is correct. Also, according to Document 7,6 they seem unsure as to how President Reagan should react. The two leaders were able to meet face to face for several days. Their meeting had been originally planned to be a preliminary discussion, as shown by Gorbachev’s letter to the American President in October 1986, but in the end, verbally at least, they agreed bilaterally to greatly reduce their arms, including both nuclear and ballistic weapons. T he agreement later floundered however over details. According to Sokov7 the preparations had been poor and negotiations were disorganised . So politically was this a non-event? George Shultz, the then American Secretary of State had brought the two men together. He is quoted by Sokov as having said :- I suppose that what startled people in Reykjavik was not what was said, because both Reagan and Gorbachev had

Essay on Typical Cell Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

On Typical Cell - Essay Example Additionally, each cell keeps its own instructions that enable it to carry out these tasks. The debate over typical cell has been present for several decades. Microbiology scientists in different factions have defined the basic cells with its components, while others argue that the definition of a typical cell is not definite. This paper discusses the basic structure and functioning of the cell to understand whether there is anything like a typical cell. The cell is the fundamental building block for all living organisms. Living cells are divided into two main categories: prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Scientists believe that life on earth began some 4 billion years ago. Prokaryotic cells were the first cells to evolve in the world. These organisms did not have a nuclear membrane, the membrane surrounding the nucleus of a cell. Bacteria cells are an example of prokaryotic organisms. However, the recent discovery of archaea (a second prokaryotic) proves that there was a third life of cel lular domain (Panno, 2005:41). Prokaryotes are single cell organisms that do not differentiate or develop to form multi-cellular organisms. Although some bacteria reside as masses of cells or grow in filaments, each single cell is similar to the other and has the capacity to exist independently. The reason behind the existence of the cells is the probability of not separating after cell division, or maybe they remained in a common slime or sheath (Cooper and Hausman, 2009:246). Despite their close arrangement to each other, they do not communicate or interact for continuity. Prokaryotes differ from eukaryotes based on nuclear structure and organization. Prokaryotes have the capability to inhabit everywhere on the planet, including our body surface. Prokaryotes lack the nuclear membrane. They also have no intracellular structure and organelles characteristic of eukaryotes. The functions of the organelles like mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, and chloroplasts are delegated to the prokar yotic plasma membrane. A prokaryote has three main architectural regions: a cytoplasmic part that has the ribosome and cell genomes (deoxyribonucleic acid DNA), a cell envelope that has a plasma membrane, a cell wall, and a capsule, and appendages refered to as pili and flagella (Panno, 2005:67). On the other hand, eukaryotes have a more defined nuclear structure. Examples of eukaryotes include animals, plants, and unicellular organisms. Eukaryotes are approximately ten times larger than prokaryotes, and having up to 1000 times much volume. The major difference between the two is that eukaryotes have compartments within the membrane where particular metabolisms occur (Cooper and Hausman, 2009:290). A significant difference is the nucleus, which is a compartment delineated by the nuclear membrane. The nucleus houses the DNA of the eukaryotic cell, thus the name of the eukaryotes (true nucleus). The eukaryotes also have organelles, special small structures that perform specific functi ons within a cell. Eukaryotic cells have dozens of different types of these organelles. Eukaryotes were a major development on the life of living things as well as a key evolution concept. Eukaryotes use the same metabolic processes and genetic codes like prokaryotes, but their advanced organizational complexity allows development of multi-cellular organism (Cooper and Hausm

Urbanisation of City Centres | Essay

Urbanisation of City Centres | Essay Introduction The past few decades have witnessed a myriad of development and rapid change throughout the city centres of the developed nations. Promethean gentrification schemes, improvements in infrastructure, and an amelioration of the service sector have all assisted in encouraging many citizens to buy or rent property within the very heart of the city. As Pacione (2005, pg. 84) has highlighted, ‘there is now a growing body of case-study evidence that indicates a recovery of large cities from the high levels of population loss experienced in the 1970s era of counter urbanisation.’ Pacione (2005, pg.84) has also revealed that ‘the rate of population loss for all 280 of Britain’s urban areas fell from 4.2% in 1971-81 to 0.1% for 1981-1991.’ Thus, it would appear that there has been much success in encouraging households to dwell within the vibrant ‘zone of transition.’ However, academics are keen to discern whether or not the often adventurous strategies deployed by urban authorities and private investors alike will truly serve to stem the tide of citizens who seek to relocate to the rural hinterland. The coming of ‘re-urbanisation’ From the mid eighteenth century onwards ‘that complex series of innovations commonly referred to as the industrial revolution’ hastened the process of urbanisation throughout Europe and gave birth to the ‘industrial city’ (Pacione, 2005, pg. 50). Social commentators such as Marx and Engels noted how the city exhibited an ‘unequal division of power’ (Pacione, 2005, pg. 51) between the capitalists (who owned property) and the working classes. Indeed, Engels’ study of Manchester during the mid 19th century highlighted the phenomenon of ‘class-repulsion.’ The Chicago school of the 1920s promulgated the theory of ‘the city as organism.’ Burgess’s ‘concentric ring’ model of the industrial city highlighted how the form of an urban area commonly extended from a central business district (which was normally surrounded by a zone of poor quality housing and social exclusion) to areas of increasing affluence in the outer city and hinterland. The majority of the great industrial urban centres throughout Europe did indeed exhibit this pattern. However, since 1945 there has been a period of ‘post industrial urbanisation’ and a consequent ‘restructuring of urban form’ (Pacione, 2005, pg. 65). One could now say that many cities within the developed world have now moved into a fourth transitional stage known as ‘re-urbanisation.’ This phenomenon is when ’the rate of population loss of the core tapers off, or the core starts regaining population’ (Pacione, 2005, pg. 83). Such a trend is encouraging for municipal authorities and private investors who for many years have been forced to endure a process of depopulation or ‘counter urbanisation’ within the inner city. This was due to a period of industrial decline from the 1950s onwards. The large slum clearance and resettlement projects conducted within cities such as Glasgow and Liverpool also significantly reduced the urban population. As Holliday (1973, pg. 4) has succinctly stated, ‘change in cities is the result both of social, economic and technological forces at work in society and of particular local forces and physical factors within the city.’ Factors which have altered the structure of urban settlements and attracted residents back towards the city centre are indeed varied. There have been demographic alterations throughout the West since the post war ‘baby-boom.’ ‘Over a quarter of households contain only one person’ and ‘more women are starting a family late in life’ (Pacione, 2005, pg. 106). Thus, the requirement of a suburban family dwelling is not as essential for as many citizens now and the prospect of an inner city apartment may seem more attractive. As Knox and Pinch (2006, pg. 33) have also observed, the ‘growth of the service economy has had important consequences for the social geography of cities.’ Indeed, western cities are no l onger industrial zones over-shadowed by Blake’s ‘dark satanic mills’ and many white collar workers within the financial sector often dwell comfortably within the urban core. However, many would argue that the most potent force which has initiated the process of ‘re-urbanisation’ has been the stance adopted by governmental authorities in order to revitalise the city. Such a determination to improve the vitality and viability of the CBD often manifests itself in the guise of ambitious public/private ventures focusing on regenerating an entire area of the inner city. This was certainly the case at the London Docklands which has been entirely transformed over the past three decades. The Regeneration of the London Docklands The redevelopment of the London Docklands has been much publicised and is an example of a public/private venture which sought to revamp the ‘brown area of mostly abandoned nineteenth century docks and warehouses’ (Rykwert, 2000, pg.226) close to the centre of London. The London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC) was set up in 1981 in order to manage the project. As Rykwert (2000, pg. 226) has noted, ‘Docklands offered a prime site for development, but only if there was huge investment.’ The LDDC coordinated the regeneration and transformation of this once dilapidated zone. In 1987 the government also agreed to ‘fund an elaborate infrastructure’ of ‘roadways, rail links, and mains services on a large scale’ (Rykwert, 2000, pg. 226). Docklands was also designated as an ‘Enterprise Zone’ which was exempt from the rigorous planning restrictions which existed elsewhere within the city centre. According to the LDDC ‘Strategy for Regeneration’ report of 1997, the population of the locale had ‘increased from 39,400 to more than 80,000’ and the number of jobs had ‘risen from 27,200 to 72,000’ (LDDC, 1997) since 1981. The Corporation also stated that ‘the substantial numbers of new houses built has relieved pressure for residential development in Londons Green Belt’ (LDDC, 1997). A policy of offering generous tax incentives to private investors, coupled with public investment in local services would appear to have paid off. The LDDC also insisted that the newly revitalised residential districts of the zone are entirely ‘sustainable.’ However, there are some who would argue that the regeneration of the Docklands and the creation of new employment opportunities at Canary Wharf has largely benefited the influx of white collar workers, to the detriment of the socially excluded indigenous population. Gentrification of the area has also displaced many of the original inhabitants. Rykwert (2000, pg. 227) notes the stark contrast between the ‘expensively finished high-rise office buildings’ which ‘dwarf the more or less gated new housing to make an even sharper contrast with a blighted hinterland.’ Indeed, Rykwert also draws attention to the nearby borough of Tower Hamlets, which still suffers from one of the highest unemployment rates in the UK. Such a redeveloped area seems to be attractive to younger professional people who can enjoy the services and cultural aspects of the city centre close at hand. However, the ultra-secure environment of intercoms, security cameras and high walls, which en velopes the modern residential buildings, insulating the affluent from the potentially unsavoury world around them, is less appealing to families with young children. As Pacione (2005, pg. 65) has emphasised, young families will naturally gravitate towards the ‘stability, security’ and ‘comfortable world of consumption’ offered by suburban life. Marketing the City Centre Promoting a ‘positive image’ of the city is of paramount importance to contemporary municipal authorities. Indeed, as Knox and Pinch (2006, pg. 51) have noted, recent years have witnessed numerous ‘attempts by public agencies to re-brand cities and make them attractive to investors.’ The ‘Glasgow’s Miles Better’ campaign of the 1980s and 1990s, which was launched by Glasgow City Council, sought to shake off the ‘hard’ image the city had acquired as a centre of social depravation and criminal activity. The ‘Garden Festival’ of 1988 and Glasgow obtaining the accolade of ‘European City of Culture’ in 1990 further improved the reputation of the city and its environs. Glasgow is now considered to be a vibrant centre which offers a wide array of services and boasts a much improved infrastructure. Gentrification projects along the River Clyde coupled with the rejuvenation of the ‘Merchant City’ in the heart of the town have attracted white collar workers back towards the hub. The local council and private investors are now keen to promote the city’s heritage as well as preserving listed buildings, areas of environmental importance and historical monuments. Such a policy adds emphasis to Holli day’s (1973, pg. 21) statement that ‘the image of a city centre is a reflection of the values of city councillors and officers’ and that it is imperative to ‘present a centre of obvious commercial prosperity, traditional values, cultural activities and an appearance reflecting pride in the city.’ Such a determination to promote a positive image of urban space also compounds Eaton’s (2001, pg. 10) notion that ‘something as complex as the city can be promoted in the mind’s eye.’ The very perception one has of a city or space is of the utmost importance and has been of great interest to academics such as Michel Foucault and David Sibley in recent years. The LDDC also highlighted how the social connotations surrounding the name ‘Docklands’ have changed dramatically over the past few years due to positive marketing and a subsequent re-imaging of this once run-down area. The same phenomenon can readily be applied to the city of Glasgow, as well as other sites of urban regeneration. However, modern-day architects who design dwellings for inner city urbanites understand the complexity of their task. Graham Haworth (who was involved in the renovation and design of residential buildings in Coin Street in central London) has acknowledged how ‘city-centre housing still proves to be something of a paradox’ and that buildings must ‘fit in comfortably to a metropolitan context’ whilst providing a ‘setting for small scale domestic activity’ (Haworth, 2003, pg. 150). Indeed, public tastes often alter considerably through time and space, and this phenomenon also represents a major challenge to all agencies involved in restoring and maintaining the vibrancy and vitality of the ‘zone of transition’. Conclusion Urban authorities now deploy a range of strategies to enhance their city centres. Allen, Massey and Pryke (1999, pg. 100) have also observed that ‘new flows of international tourists and business people are restructuring old urban spaces.’ As Knox and Pinch (2006, pg. 33) have highlighted, the post war world has witnessed the ‘emergence of global cities’ which must compete for inward investment. The city centre offers a range of options for developers. The process of gentrification is seen by many to be a positive element in regenerating brown belt sites and a ‘back-to-the-city move by capital’ (Knox, Pinch, 2006, pg. 145). However, some would contest this ‘revanchist’ notion. Pacione (2005, pg. 212) has noted that gentrification ‘commonly involves residential relocation by people already living in the city’ and is not a ‘back-to-the-city move by suburbanites.’ The notion championed by the LDDC, and other agencies, that inner city redevelopment will place less strain on the rural hinterland and reduce the flow of households to the periphery is also questionable. It should be borne in mind that inner city regeneration tends to attract younger professional people in the 20-39 age group. Statistics released by the Development and Regeneration Services of Glasgow (2007, pg. 14) this year concluded that over 35% of the inner city population was within this age group. Numbers of citizens falling into the other age categories were below the national average. Indeed, one could say that the vibrancy of the urban core is more appealing to young professionals as opposed to households with children. Tonkiss (2005, pg. 80) has also emphasised that gentrification ‘remains something of a minority taste.’ As Holliday has highlighted, a variety of factors, from demographics to technological shifts, affect the development of the city. Municipal strategies tend to respond to these forces, and act accordingly. Despite the recent success of urban regeneration schemes, and a marked reduction in the depopulation of city centres throughout the UK, it seems likely that many households will continue to seek the safety and security of the rural periphery. During the period from 1981 to 1991 suburban zones in the UK continued to expand at a rate of ‘less than 6%’ (Pacione, 2005, pg. 84). Many retired people are also tending to move away from urban areas and relocate within the ‘sunbelt’ zone of the Mediterranean region. Bibliography ALLEN, J. MASSEY, D. PYKE, M. Unsettling Cities, Routledge, 1999 DEVELOPMENT AND REGENERATION SERVICES OF GLASGOW, Glasgow Factsheets, DRS, 2007 EATON, R. Ideal Cities: Utopianism and the (Un)built Environment, Thames and Hudson, 2001 HOLLDAY, J. City Centre Redevelopment: A Study of British City Centre Planning and Case Studies of Five English Cities, Charles Knight, 1973 KNOX, P. PINCH, S. Urban Social Geography, Pearson, Prentice Hall, 2006 LONDON DOCKLANDS DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION, Strategy for Regeneration Report, LDDC, 1997 PACIONE, M. Urban Geography: A Global Perspective, Routledge, 2nd Edition, 2005 RYKWERT, J. The Seduction of Place: The City in the Twenty-First Century, Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 2000 THOMAS, R. Sustainable Urban Design: An Environmental Approach, Spon Press, 2003 TONKISS, F. Space, The City and Social Theory: Social Relations and Urban Forms, Polity Press, 2005 RIDDELL, R. Sustainable Urban Planning, Blackwell, 2004 SHORT, J, R. Urban Theory: A Critical Assessment, Palgrave, MacMillan, 2006 1